THE SCIENCE OF DEATH AND DYING ...

THE SCIENCE OF  DEATH AND  DYING 

UNDERSTAND ALL ABOUT DEATH AND HOW TO RECOVER FROM ITS EFFECT.

DEATH AND DYING

Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a livingorganism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury.

Death as aresult of age can be seen as the final conclusion of an individual’s developmental cycle. Death is viewed differently depending on age, culture and religious beliefs. Irrespective of who you are, no one wishes to die.

ATTITUDES TOWARD DEATH 

Childhood

Before they attain the ability to perform concrete operations, children do not have an accurate conception to death. They believe death is reversible and can be avoided

Adolescence

Although adolescentsunderstand the nature of death, they do not have a healthy respect for its implications. An adolescent thinks only on how to live not how long to live. In fact they may associate death with glamour or daring deeds of heroism. They would always want to do extreme activities to defy death hence making death not to be feared.

Young Adults

Young adults are at the peak of their physical and sensory abilities and believe that the future has much to offer them. They rarely think of their own death. Consequently the occurrence of life threatening illness usually provokes extreme anger and rage. Young adults with terminal illness are typically very poor hospital patients; they feel death is unfair and they are being robbed of their future.

Middle Adult hood

During the middle ages noticeable physical changes (signs of aging e.g. wrinkled face, weakness in bones etc) in addition to experiences of death of loved ones and other people, make them aware of death. This awareness can lead to a middle life crisis, where an individual may start behaving like they are in an earlier stage like adolescence or improve dietary and exercise habits to become more physically fit and live a long life.

Late adulthood

The elderly have reached a stage of understanding and accepting of this eventuality than the young ones. According to Erik Erikson, at this age they face the crisis of generatively verses stagnation. Generatively in the sense that they have parented children and achieved in their life and also given back to society.With this perspective death is not a very big issue. But if they have not achieved as above, they feel stagnated and may wish to have more time so as to be able to realize achievement.

Death and religious beliefs

All religions, Christians, hindu, islam believe in life after death. The following bible verses, John 11:25, John 3:16,luke 16:19-31 articulate the fact that there is life after death. Islamic doctrine holds that human existence continues after the death of the human body in the form of spiritual and physical resurrection. Faith in life after death is one of the six fundamental beliefs required of a Muslim to complete his faith

Death and cultural beliefs

Almost all cultural beliefs believe in life after death, they perform rituals which are perceived to prepare one for the next world.  Placing the body of the deceased on high ground (a mountain) and leaving it for birds of prey to dispose of, as in Tibet. Birds of prey are carriers of the soul to the heavens

Qn.Describe some culture practices done by your tribe to prepare someone for life after death

Confronting death

Ultimately we must all face our impending death. How will we react?. According to Elisabeth Kubler-Rose, terminally ill patients typically go through five stages in dealing with and understanding death.

Stage one:-Denial

The typical reaction is, this can’t happen to me, because friends and family members may also deny the reality of death the patient feels isolated and has no one with whom to talk.

Stage two:-Anger

Once the reality has been confronted, the not me attitude changes to why me?, complaint. Young and healthy individuals are envied. To move beyond this stage, patients must express their anger and rage.

Stage three:-Bargaining

Once rage and anger have been expressed, terminally ill person bargains for additional time. Such bargains often take the form of prayers such as I will lead a better life if I can only live until…..

Stage four:- Depression

Depression often follows the bargaining stage. As with anger depression should not be hidden. Only by directly confronting and experiencing the normal feelings of sadness and grief will the person be able to progress to the stage of acceptance

Stage five:-acceptances

This stage is characterized by a feeling of being at peace with oneself. Unfinished business such as setting ones finances in order and seeing old friends for a final time, has been taken care of and the person accepts the fact that time is near.

BEREAVEMENT, GRIEF AND SUPPORT

Death brings numerous changed and adjustments for those who are left behind. Roles change, a wife becomes a widow, a husband a widower and a child an orphan

The emotional and role changes that followdeath are called bereavement, all people whose emotions and role Ts change are known as the bereaved. E.g. widows and widowers must assume the responsibility of the deceased spouse and orphans must adjust to a totally new environment.

Grief

The emotional changes associated with bereavement. It’s usually quit difficult to adjust to emotions of bereavement, this process usually progresses through four stages.

Stage one-shock and denial

These reactions serve to protect the individual from the pain of what happens. The stage may last as long as two or three months or even more

Stage two-intense concern

This is characterized by intense concern for perpetuating/extending the memory of the dead person. All thoughts and concern are on the dead person.

Stage three-Despair and depression

Is often characterized by confused thinking and anger. Irrational behaviors e.g. selling ones house and moving away, not caring for one’s self etc

Stage four-Recovery

When the bereaved person shows renewed interest in normal daily activities, he or she has reached the recovery stage. Social support is a key ingredient ina successful copying with death and bereavement.

ALL ABOUT THE HUMAN Embryology...

What is Embryology?

By Dr Ananya Mandal, MD

Embryology is the study of development of an embryo from the stage of ovum fertilization through to the fetal stage.

The ball of dividing cells that results after fertilization is termed an “embryo” for eight weeks and from nine weeks after fertilization, the term used is “fetus.”

Outline of conception

Once an egg is released from the ovary during ovulation, it meets with a sperm cell that was carried to it via the semen. These two gametes combine to form a zygote and this process is called fertilization. The zygote then begins to divide and becomes a blastula.
The blastula develops in one of two ways, which actually divides the whole animal kingdom in half. The blastula develops a pore at one end, called a blastopore. If that blastopore becomes the mouth of the animal, the animal is a protostome, and if it forms an anus, the animal is a deuterostome.
Protosomes are invertebrate animals such as worms, insects and molluscs while deuterostomes are vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, and humans.
The blastula continues to develop, eventually forming a structure called the gastrula. The gastrula then forms three germ cell layers, from which all of the body’s organs and tissues are eventually derived. From the innermost layer or endoderm, the digestive organs, lungs and bladder develop; the skeleton, blood vessels and muscles are derived from the middle layer or mesoderm and the outer layer or ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system, skin and hair.

Surface Anatomy of the Lower Extremity....

13. Surface Anatomy of the Lower Extremity
Skin.—The skin of the thigh, especially in the hollow of the groin and on the medial side, is thin, smooth and elastic, and contains few hairs except on the neighborhood of the pubis. Laterally it is thicker and the hairs are more numerous. The junction of the skin of the thigh with that on the front of the abdomen is marked by a well-defined furrow which indicates the site of the inguinal ligament; the furrow presents a general convexity downward, but its medial half, which is the better marked, is nearly straight. The skin over the buttock is fairly thick and is characterized by its low sensibility and slight vascularity; as a rule it is destitute of conspicuous hairs except toward the post-anal furrow, where in some males they are abundantly developed. An almost transverse fold—the gluteal fold—crosses the lower part of the buttock; it practically bisects the lower margin of the Glutæus maximus and is most evident during extension of the hip-joint. The skin over the front of the knee is covered by thickened epidermis; it is loose and thrown into transverse wrinkles when the leg is extended. The skin of the leg is thin, especially on the medial side, and is covered with numerous large hairs. On the dorsum of the foot the skin is thin, loosely connected to subjacent parts, and contains few hairs, on the plantar surface, and especially over the heel, the epidermis is of great thickness, and here, as in the palm of the hand, there are neither hairs nor sebaceous glands.	1
Bones.—The hip bones are largely covered with muscles, so that only at a few points do they approach the surface. In front the anterior superior iliac spine is easily recognized, and in thin subjects stands out as a prominence at the lateral end of the fold of the groin; in fat subjects its position is indicated by an oblique depression, at the bottom of which the bony process can be felt. Proceeding upward and backward from this process the sinuously curved iliac crest can be traced to the posterior superior iliac spine, the site of which is indicated by a slight depression; on the outer lip of the crest, about 5 cm. behind the anterior superior spine, is the prominent iliac tubercle. In thin subjects the pubic tubercle is very apparent, but in the obese it is obscured by the pubic fat; it can, however, be detected by following up the tendon of origin of Adductor longus. Another part of the bony pelvis which is accessible to touch is the ischial tuberosity, situated beneath the Glutæus maximus, and, when the hip is flexed, easily felt, as it is then uncovered by muscle.	2

The femur is enveloped by muscles, so that in fairly muscular subjects the only accessible parts are the lateral surface of the greater trochanter and the lower expanded end of the bone. The site of the greater trochanter is generally indicated by a depression, owing to the thickness of the Glutæi medius and minimus which project above it; when, however, the thigh is flexed, and especially if it be crossed over the opposite one, the trochanter produces a blunt eminence on the surface. The lateral condyle is more easily felt than the medial; both epicondyles can be readily identified, and at the upper part of the medial condyle the sharp adductor tubercle can be recognized without difficulty. When the knee is flexed a portion of the patellar surface is uncovered and is palpable.	3
The anterior surface of the patella is subcutaneous. When the knee is extended the medial border of the bone is a little more prominent than the lateral, and if the Quadriceps femoris be relaxed the bone can be moved from side to side. When the joint is flexed the patella recedes into the hollow between the condyles of the femur and the upper end of the tibia, and becomes firmly applied to the femur.	4
A considerable portion of the tibia is subcutaneous. At the upper end the condyles can be felt just below the knee; the medial condyle is broad and smooth, and merges into the subcutaneous surface of the body below; the lateral is narrower and more prominent, and on it, about midway between the apex of the patella and the head of the fibula, is the tubercle for the attachment of the iliotibial band. In front of the upper end of the bone, between the condyles, is an oval eminence, the tuberosity, which is continuous below with the anterior crest of the bone. This crest can be identified in the upper two-thirds of its extent as a flexuous ridge, but in the lower third it disappears and the bone is concealed by the tendons of the muscles on the front of the leg. Medial to the anterior crest is the broad surface, slightly encroached on by muscles in front and behind. The medial malleolus forms a broad prominence, situated at a higher level and somewhat farther forward than the lateral malleolus; it overhangs the medial border of the arch of the foot; its anterior border is nearly straight, its posterior presents a sharp edge which forms the medial margin of the groove for the tendon of Tibialis posterior.	5
The only subcutaneous parts of the fibula are the head, the lower part of the body, and the lateral malleolus. The head lies behind and lateral to the lateral condyle of the tibia, and presents as a small prominent pyramidal eminence slightly above the level of the tibial tuberosity; its position can be readily located by following downward the tendon of Biceps femoris. The lateral malleolus is a narrow elongated prominence, from which the lower third or half of the lateral surface of the body of the bone can be traced upward.	6
On the dorsum of the tarsus the individual bones cannot be distinguished, with the exception of the head of the talus, which forms a rounded projection in front of the ankle-joint when the foot is forcibly extended. The whole dorsal surface of the foot has a smooth convex outline, the summit of which is the ridge formed by the head of the talus, the navicular, the second cuneiform, and the second metatarsal bone; from this it inclines gradually lateralward, and rapidly medialward. On the medial side of the foot the medial process of the tuberosity of the calcaneus and the ridge separating the posterior from the medial surface of the bone are distinguishable; in front of this, and below the medial malleolus, is the sustentaculum tali. The tuberosity of the navicular is palpable about 2.5 to 3 cm. in front of the medial malleolus.	7
Farther forward, the ridge formed by the base of the first metatarsal bone can be obscurely felt, and from this the body of the bone can be traced to the expanded head; beneath the base of the first phalanx is the medial sesamoid bone. On the lateral side of the foot the most posterior bony point is the lateral process of the tuberosity of the calcaneus, with the ridge separating the posterior from the lateral surface of the bone. In front of this the greater part of the lateral surface of the calcaneus is subcutaneous; on it, below and in front of the lateral malleolus, the trochlear process, when present, can be felt. Farther forward the base of the fifth metatarsal bone is prominent, and from it the body and expanded head can be traced.	8
As in the case of the metacarpals, the dorsal surfaces of the metatarsal bones are easily defined, although their heads do not form prominences; the plantar surfaces are obscured by muscles. The phalanges in their whole extent are readily palpable.	9
Articulations.—The hip-joint is deeply seated and cannot be palpated.	10
The interval between the tibia and femur can always be easily felt; if the knee-joint be extended this interval is on a higher level than the apex of the patella, but if the joint be slightly flexed it is directly behind the apex. When the knee is semiflexed, the medial borders of the patella and of the medial condyle of the femur, and the upper border of the medial condyle of the tibia, bound a triangular depressed area which indicates the position of the joint.	11
The ankle-joint can be felt on either side of the Extensor tendons, and during extension of the joint the superior articular surface of the talus presents below the anterior border of the lower end of the tibia.	12
FIG. 1238– Front and medial aspect of right thigh. (See enlarged image)
Muscles.—Of the muscles of the thigh, those of the anterior femoral region (Fig. 1238) contribute largely to surface form. The Tensor fasciæ latæ produces a broad elevation immediately below the anterior part of the iliac crest and behind the anterior superior iliac spine; from its lower border a groove caused by the iliotibial band extends downward to the lateral side of the knee-joint. The upper portion of Sartorius constitutes the lateral boundary of the femoral triangle, and, when the muscle is in action, forms a prominent oblique ridge which is continued below into a flattened plane and then gradually merges into a general fulness on the medial side of the knee-joint. When the Sartorius is not in action, a depression exists between the Quadriceps femoris and the Adductors, and extends obliquely downward and medialward from the apex of the femoral triangle to the side of the knee. In the angle formed by the divergence of Sartorius and Tensor fasciæ lataæ, just below the anterior superior iliac spine, the Rectus femoris appears, and in a muscular subject its borders can be clearly defined when the muscle is in action. The Vastus lateralis forms a long flattened plane traversed by the groove of the iliotibial band. The Vastus medialis gives rise to a considerable prominence on the medial side of the lower half of the thigh; this prominence increases toward the knee and ends somewhat abruptly with a full curved outline. The Vastus intermedius is completely hidden. The Adductores cannot be differentiated from one another, with the exception of the upper tendon of Adductor longus and the lower tendon of Adductor magnus. When the Adductor longus is in action its upper tendon stands out as a prominent ridge running obliquely downward and lateralward from the neighborhood of the public tubercle, and forming the medial border of the femoral triangle. The lower tendon of Adductor magnus can be distinctly felt as a short ridge extending downward between the Sartorius and Vastus medialis to the adductor tubercle. The adductores fill in the triangular space at the upper part of the thigh, between the femur and the pelvis, and to them is due the contour of the medial border of the thigh, the Gracilis contributing largely to the smoothness of the outline.	13
FIG. 1239– Back of left lower extremity. (See enlarged image)
The Glutæus maximus (Fig. 1239) forms the full rounded outline of the buttock; it is more prominent behind, compressed in front, and ends at its tendinous insertion in a depression immediately behind the greater trochanter; its lower border crosses the gluteal fold obliquely downward and lateralward. The upper is part of Glutæus medius visible, but its lower part with Glutæus minimus and the external rotators are completely hidden. From beneath the lower margin of Glutæus maximus the hamstrings appear; at first they are narrow and not well-defined, but as they descend they become more prominent and eventually divide into two well-marked ridges formed by their tendons; these constitute the upper boundaries of the popliteal fossa. The tendon of Biceps femoris is a thick cord running to the head of the fibula; the tendons of the Semimembranosus and Semitendinosus as they run medialward to the tibia are separated by a slight furrow; the Semitendinosus is the more medial, and can be felt in certain positions of the limb as a sharp cord, while the Semimembranosus is thick and rounded. The Gracilis is situated a little in front of them.	14
The Tibialis anterior (Fig. 1240) presents a fusiform enlargement at the lateral side of the tibia and projects beyond the anterior crest of the bone; its tendon can be traced on the front of the tibia and ankle-joint and thence along the medial side of the foot to the base of the first metatarsal bone. The fleshy fibers of Peronæus longus are strongly marked at the upper part of the lateral side of the leg; it is separated by furrows from Extensor digitorum longus in front and Soleus behind. Below, the fleshy fibers end abruptly in a tendon which overlaps the more flattened elevation of Peronæus brevis; below the lateral malleolus the tendon of Peronæus brevis is the more marked.	15
On the dorsum of the foot (Fig. 1241) the tendons emerging from beneath the transverse and cruciate crural ligaments spread out and can be distinguished as follows: the most medial and largest is Tibialis anterior, the next is Extensor hallucis proprius, then Extensor digitorum longus dividing into four tendons, to the second, third, fourth, and fifth toes, and lastly Peronæus tertius. The Extensor digitorum brevis produces a rounded outline on the dorsum of the foot and a fulness in front of the lateral malleolus. The Interossei dorsales bulge between the metatarsal bones.	16
FIG. 1240– Lateral aspect of right leg. (See enlarged image)
At the back of the knee is the popliteal fossa, bounded above by the tendons of the hamstrings and below by the Gastrocnemius. Below this fossa is the prominent fleshy mass of the calf of the leg produced by Gastrocnemius and Soleus (Fig. 1239). When these muscles are in action the borders of Gastrocnemius form two well-defined curved lines which converge to the tendocalcaneus; the medial border is the more prominent. At the same time the edges of Soleus can be seen forming, on either side of Gastrocnemius, curved eminences, of which the lateral is the longer. The fleshy mass of the calf ends somewhat abruptly in the tendocalcaneus, which tapers in the upper three-fourths of its extent but widens out slightly below. Behind the medial border of the lower part of the tibia (Fig. 1242) a well-defined ridge is produced by the tendon of Tibialis posterior during contraction of the muscle.	17
On the sole of the foot the Abductor digiti quinti forms a narrow rounded elevation on the lateral side, and the Abductor hallucis a lesser elevation on the medial side. The Flexor digitorum brevis, bound down by the plantar aponeurosis, is not very apparent; it produces a flattened form, and the thickened skin underlying it is thrown into numerous wrinkles.	18
FIG. 1241– The mucous sheaths of the tendons around the ankle. Lateral aspect. (See enlarged image)
Arteries.—The femoral artery as it crosses the brim of the pelvis is readily felt; in its course down the thigh its pulsation becomes gradually more difficult of recognition. When the knee is flexed the pulsation of the popliteal artery can easily be detected in the popliteal fossa.	19
FIG. 1242– The mucous sheaths of the tendons around the ankle. Medial aspect. (See enlarged image)
On the lower part of the front of the tibia the anterior tibial artery becomes superficial and can be traced over the ankle into the dorsalis pedis; the latter can be followed to the proximal end of the first intermetatarsal space. The pulsation of the posterior tibial artery becomes evident near the lower end of the back of the tibia, and is easily detected behind the medial malleolus.	20
Veins.—By compressing the proximal trunks, the venous arch on the dorsum of the foot, together with the great and small saphenous veins leading from it (see page 669), are rendered visible.	21
Nerves.—The only nerve of the lower extremity which can be located by palpation is the common peroneal as it winds around the lateral side of the neck of the fibula

How to build a gaming PC: a beginner's guide..

How to build a gaming PC: a beginner's guide

There’s never been a better time to be a PC gamer. The gaming scene is vibrant: envelope-pushing graphical powerhouses look best on the PC, and it’s the first stop for independent developers making creative and innovative games. And building a great gaming PC has never been cheaper or easier. But, we admit it—if you’ve never built a PC before, it can still be a little intimidating.

Our example RIg

For this build, we're using the following components. Your build will likely differ slightly, but most of the steps are universal and will look and function similarly:

Prcoessor: Intel Core 7
Motherboard: Asus LGA 1150 socket
Memory: Corsair DDR3
Graphics card: Nvidia GTX 980
Power supply: Antec 850 watt modular
SSD: Samsung 850 EVO
HDD: Western Digital Black
CPU Cooler: Cooler Master Hyper 212 EVO
Disc drive: None
Case: Fractal Design Define R5

But it’s easy. We promise. And we think you should build your own gaming rig, even if your last gaming PC was a great system from a custom rig-builder. If you’re ready to take the plunge and build your next gaming PC, we’re here to help. This is our step-by-step guide to building your own PC, with video embeds illustrating each major step of the process. Seriously, putting together your PC isn’t much tougher than putting together a model kit or a big Lego set.

Here are some general starting tips before getting into the step-by-step process:

Avoid static electricity! Build your PC on a table or some flat surface away from carpet. Ideally, dispel any built-up bodily charge by touching a grounded metal object before you touch sensitive PC components. As long as you’re not rubbing your socked feet back and forth and building up a static charge, you’re probably fine.

Open up your motherboard manual to the diagram page that shows a layout of the motherboard. If you ever get confused about what goes where, the labels on this page should help you sort it out.

PC Gamer readers have also given us some great tips, which we've compiled here. Read through the building section before tackling your first
Build steps

For this build, we're using the following components. Your build will likely differ slightly, but but most of the steps below are universal and will look and function very similarly.
Install the CPU

Parts used: Motherboard, CPU

Remove your motherboard from its anti-static sleeve and place it on a clean, flat surface, where you'll be doing your build. Remove the protective plastic covering over the CPU socket on the motherboard by pushing the lever arm down and to the side, then pulling the covering up. Now you’re ready to install the processor.

Open your CPU box and take the processor out. It’s probably safely housed in a plastic sleeve. Look at the CPU, and match the arrow on the bottom-left corner of the chip with the bottom corner of the socket. There are also two notches on the top half of the chip. The pins face down, so the plain silver side should be facing up. There’s only one possible way to correctly orient the CPU, which makes it easy to install!

The CPU fits into the socket, and you don't need to press down to force it into place. It doesn't "snap" in—it just rests on top of the pins. To finish the installation, simply lower the socket covering and push the lever arm back into place.
Install the CPU cooler

Parts used: motherboard (with installed CPU), CPU cooler, thermal pastE

Ready for what is (usually) the hardest step of your build process? Everything from here on is a total breeze, but installing a CPU cooler can be a bit tricky, especially because they vary in design. For this step, you should primarily be following the steps shown in your CPU cooler’s included instructions. But I’ll walk you through two examples: installing the stock Intel cooler included with Intel’s processors, and installing the popular Cooler Master Hyper 212 Evo, our recommended air cooler.

Stock Intel cooler: This little guy will keep an Intel processor cool enough if you’re not doing any overclocking, but it’s not as quiet or efficient as an aftermarket cooler. Its greatest strength, however, is simplicity. If you look at the bottom of the cooler, you’ll notice it already has thermal material on it. This means you don’t need to add thermal paste to your CPU. Intel’s cooler is also easy to mount. Simply place it over the CPU socket, oriented so that its labeling faces the same direction as the text on the processor. The frame of the socket is the top, while the lever arm juts down to the bottom. Push the cooler’s pegs into the four holes surrounding the CPU socket until they click into place.

Cooler Master Hyper 212 Evo: This cooler takes a bit more work. First, find the CPU mounting plate (aka back plate). You need to install this plate to the backside of the motherboard to provide extra support for the cooler. Refer to the instructions to find the proper screws and backplate positioning for your motherboards, since the mounting positioning can vary slightly between sockets. But lining it up should be easy—there are four holes around the edges of the CPU socket, and that’s where you’ll be placing screws to attach to the backplate on the backside of the motherboard. Hold the backplate in position so its mounting holes line up with the holes around the socket, then screw it into place from the top side.

With the backplate securely in place, you’re ready to install the cooler. Unclip the fan from the radiator to make it easier to install. Now flip the radiator over so that the small side, with copper piping, is facing up. There should be a clear plastic covering on this surface to keep it clean.

Remove the plastic and apply a pea-size dab of thermal paste to the middle of the surface (I did a sloppy job in the video above: you can use about half that much thermal paste). You don’t need a lot, and you don’t need to spread it around—pressing the cooler onto the CPU will do that for you.

Ready to put it in place? Orient the cooler vertically over the CPU socket (the socket is taller than it is wide, so you should orient the cooler to match) and press it down firmly on the CPU. Make sure it’s on straight.

Home stretch: look at the CPU mounting bracket, a crossbar with spring-loaded screws on the ends. Reference the instructions to make sure those screws are positioned properly for your motherboard socket. Then, with the bracket closed, slip it in the gap between the radiator and the contact point of the cooler. There’s a little peg hole here that the center of the bracket nestles into. Push it into place, then spread the two arms out and position the screws into place over the four mounting screws you installed earlier. Screw them in, and you should feel the cooler tighten up against the motherboard until it’s held solidly in place.

Reattach the fan to the heatsink simply by clipping it into place. You’ve now installed your CPU cooler.
Slot in the RAM

Parts used: motherboard (with CPU and cooler), RAMThis step is easy. So easy. Take your RAM sticks (you probably have two or four) out of their packaging. Before installing, refer to your motherboard manual’s page about the RAM slots. This page will tell you which RAM slots are the ideal slots to use based on how many sticks you have. These slots are usually color coordinated.

Once you know where you’re putting the RAM, unlock the slot by pushing down on the hinged tabs on one end. Orient your RAM so that the notch ⅓ of the way through the stick matches with the notch on the slot. Now press the RAM sticks firmly into the slots. Don’t worry about pressing too hard—it takes some pressure. The tabs will click into place when the sticks are fully inserted.
Snap the I/O shield into place

Parts used (PC case, motherboard I/O shield)

Time to open up that shiny new PC case you bought. Opening it is as simple as undoing the thumbscrews at the back of the case that hold the panels in place, and then removing them. Now lay the case flat on your table so that the main cavity faces up.

Your motherboard should’ve come with a rectangular plastic or metal I/O shield that fits over the motherboard’s input/output ports. To install the I/O shield into the case, first orient it correctly in relation to the motherboard, then fit it into the rectangular slot at the back of the PC case. You’ll have to press it firmly into the slot from within the case; they can be finicky to install, and the edges are sharp, so watch your fingers. Press against each side of the I/O shield until it gives you a solid snap.
Install the motherboard standoffs in the PC case and screw in the motherboard

Parts used: PC case, PC case standoffs and screws, motherboard

Your case should’ve come with a box or bag full of screws, zip-ties, and other odds and ends you’ll use for installation. Find the motherboard standoffs—the bottom halves of the standoffs are threaded, while the top halves are screw holes that you’ll be screwing the motherboard into.

Now examine your case. There should be about a dozen small holes around the inside of the case where the standoffs go. Depending on your case, they may be labeled for different size motherboards: A for ATX, M for micro ATX, and I for mini ITX. Depending on the size of your motherboard (in most cases, you’ll be building with a standard ATX size), you want to put the standoffs into the correctly labeled holes. If they’re not labeled, you should have enough standoffs to simply cover every hole. Screw them into place using the included standoff tool, which fits over the standoff and lets you use a screwdriver.

With the standoffs in place, it’s time to screw in the motherboard. Orient it so that the I/O ports line up properly with the I/O shield, then lower the motherboard until it’s resting on the standoffs. Most cases have a peg that fits up through a hole in the center of the motherboard, so if you have it properly positioned, it should now be locked into place. Once the motherboard’s placed, find the motherboard screws that came with your case and tighten that mother down.
Install the power supply

Parts used: Power supply, PC case

Another easy step. Take your power supply out of its box and set aside all the cables, which you’ll be using a bit later. Depending on the model, the power supply may be completely modular (in which case, no cables are permanently attached) or partially modular (primary motherboard power cables are hardwired in) or not at all modular (a whole big mess of permanently attached cables). Regardless, this step of the installation process is the same: you’re going to put the PSU into the case, usually at the bottom, so that the rear vent and power plug and on/off switch face out of the rear of the case.

Depending on your case, you may have the option to orient the power supply face up or face down. See the big fan on top of your power supply? If your case has a vent at the bottom, you can orient that fan down to pull in cool air from below the case. But don’t orient the PSU downwards if your PC will be resting on carpet. The fan needs clear airflow. If your case doesn’t have that ventilation at the bottom, simply orient the power supply so that the fan faces up, into the case.

With the power supply nestled against the back of the case, find the power supply screws that came with your case and screw it in tight. You’ll probably need to push against the power supply from inside the case to make sure it’s snug.
Insert hard drives and/or SSDs

Parts used: PC case, HDD, SSD



This step will vary a bit based on your case and what kind of storage you’re putting into your PC. A pretty standard configuration these days is an SSD for your Windows installation and games, and a HDD for bulk storage of media.

In a typical case, there are convenient hard drive trays that slide in and out, or plastic runners that snap onto the sides of the HDD. If it’s a tray, it probably mounts onto the bottom of the hard drive. Orient your HDD in the tray so that its ports face out of the back of the tray. This will allow you to run cables to it on the backside of the case, and keep the interior cavity nice and clear. Now find the HDD screws included with your PC case parts and screw the HDD to the tray. Then simply slide the tray back into its slot, where it should fit with a nice click. Runners are even easier: just snap them to the sides of the HDD and then slot it into an empty space in the hard drive cage.

SSD mounting methods vary: some cases now have dedicated 2.5-inch SSD slots, while others use adapter trays to fit the SSD into the same part of the case as the HDDs. If it’s a tray, the installation will be similar to a hard drive. Refer to your case’s manual to figure out how your SSD should be mounted.
Plug in hard drives and/or SSDs

Parts used: PC case, SATA cables, power cables, HDD, SSD

Once you have all your drives installed, it’s time to plug ‘em in. Find the SATA data cables included with your motherboard, and plug those into the small SATA ports on the drives. The SATA port is notched, so the cable can only fit in one way.

After the SATA data cable comes the SATA power cable. These cables may already be attached to your power supply—there are usually plugs attached to a single cable, and you should have several extras included with the power supply. If your HDD and SSD are installed close together, you should only need one cable to power them both. Find the cable where it’s connected to the power supply, pull it through one of the cable management openings along the wall of the case, and plug in both the SSD and HDD. Like the SATA data cables, these are notched, and can only plug in one way.

Final step: your SATA data cables are probably just dangling from the drives right now. Thread them through one of the cable management openings into the main case cavity and plug them into the SATA data ports on the motherboard. They’re usually located on the right side of the board, conveniently close to a cable management opening. Which port should you use? All of them should work fine, but refer to your motherboard manual for information on the SATA controller. It will tell you which ports belong to the motherboard chipset (I’d recommend using those) versus a third-party SATA controller.
Plug USB, power, fans, and case controls into the motherboard

Parts used: PC case, motherboard, power supply

You’re in the home stretch! For this step, open up your motherboard manual to the layout page, because you’ve got a bunch of cables to plug in. There should be a big wad of cables somewhere inside the case, which control its built-in fans and external power and reset buttons and front panel USB and audio ports. Most of them are small pin connectors that plug in at the bottom-right of the motherboard. They’re all labeled, so plugging them in is as simple as reading your manual and figuring out what goes where.

From the power supply, you’ll also need to plug in two cables: the large, primary ATX 20-pin molex power cable plugs into the motherboard to provide power. And ATX motherboards also need a secondary 6-pin molex power cable up near the CPU. To plug in that cable, you may want to run it around the back of your case and through one of the cable management slots near the top. If it’s too short, you can thread it around the side of the motherboard and CPU cooler. Just don’t stretch it across the center of the cavity, as that’s where we’ll be placing the graphics card momentarily.

With the motherboard powered, the last plugs you need to attach are fans. First, make sure your CPU cooler’s fan is plugged into the port near the CPU socket. Then make sure all your case fans are plugged into their nearest fan power pins. Those should be visibly labeled on the motherboard, but again, refer to the manual to make sure you place them properly.
Insert the graphics card

Parts used: PC case, motherboard, graphics card, power supply

Here we are: the final step before your gaming rig is fully operational. Find the first x16 PCIe slot on your motherboard—the long slot closest to the CPU socket—and remove the expansion slot cover plates to the left of it. Most video cards use a dual-slot design, which means you need to remove the cover plate directly left of the PCIe slot, and the one above it. To take them off, simply unscrew the thumbscrews and slide them out.

Now align your graphics card’s PCIe PCIe interface with the slot and press it into place. When it’s slotted in, re-insert the thumbscrews you just took out to keep the graphics card strongly locked into place.

All that’s left is to feed it power. Your power supply probably already has two six pin molex power connectors plugged in, unless it’s a fully modular design. If it is fully modular, find those cables in your supplies, plug them into the PSU, and then plug them into the graphics card. Depending on how much power the card needs, you might also have to plug in the extra 2-pin attachments that can fit snugly against the 6-pins. With your graphics card fully powered, you’re ready to game.
Powering on and troubleshooting

Don't completely close up your case just yet. Before you do, you should test if your computer is working as intended. Plug in the system and attach a monitor (make sure you plug the monitor cable into the video card) and a keyboard, the bare essentials for testing if the system will boot. Then make sure the power switch in the back is in the On position, and press the power button. If the computer turns on, that's a promising start!

If you see the BIOS screen pop up on the monitor, that's even better. If you get any kind of error message here that doesn't immediately make sense, Google's probably your best resource. It could also be an issue common to your motherboard, so you can try searching for the error message plus the name of your motherboard.

If nothing shows up on the screen at all, or the system doesn't turn on properly, the most likely issue is with your cables. Double check that everything is plugged in where it needs to be (don't forget the molex power cable that runs up to the CPU socket!), and make sure nothing is loose. With a little jiggling, you'll likely have a working PC!

Cristiano Ronaldo a history maker - Real Madrid's Rafael Benitez

• From the section European Football

Cristiano Ronaldo scored 48 La Liga goals last season

Cristiano Ronaldo deserves his place in Real Madrid history after becoming their record La Liga scorer, manager Rafael Benitez says.

The Portugal forward's five goals in a 6-0 win at Espanyol on Saturday took him to 230 Spanish top-flight goals, passing Raul's record of 228.
"The numbers speak for themselves," Benitez said of Ronaldo, who has reached his total in 204 matches.
"Someone who scores so many goals has a place in the history books."
Benitez added: "I hope that he can continue to add to his goalscoring account for his own benefit and that of the team."

The 'impossible' footballer

La Liga's all-time top scorers
Player	Clubs	Years in La Liga	Goals
1. Lionel Messi	Barcelona	2004-	287
2. Telmo Zarra	Athletic Bilbao	1940-1955	251
3. Hugo Sanchez	Atletico MadridReal MadridRayo Vallecano	1981-1994	234
4. Cristiano Ronaldo	Real Madrid	2009	230
5. Raul	Real Madrid	1994-2010	228

Ronaldo is the fourth highest scorer in La Liga history - with Barcelona's Lionel Messi leading the way on 287.
The Real Madrid forward, though, has been the division's top scorer in each of the last two seasons, finishing the 2014-15 campaign with 48 league goals.
He has averaged 1.13 goals per league game in six years at Real since his £80m transfer from Manchester United.
Pepe, Real Madrid's Portugal international defender, said after the 30-year-old's latest starring performance: "Espanyol have a good team but when Cristiano has his day, it's impossible."

'He's the best in the world'

Ronaldo had gone eight matches without scoring - a run that included pre-season friendlies and internationals

It was the second time in 2015 that Ronaldo had scored five goals in a match - he did it when Real beat Granada 9-1 in La Liga on 5 April.
However, he had been called into question after going without a goal in either of his club's opening two La Liga matches, while also failing to score during the recent international break as Portugal lost a friendly to France and beat Armenia in a Euro 2016 qualifier.
But Real goalkeeper Keylor Navas said that Ronaldo - winner of the Fifa Ballon d'Or in each of the last two years - remains the world's top player.
Navas said: "He's incredible. We all know full well that he's the best player in the world and we're delighted to have him on our team."

'We can still do better'

Real Madrid have scored 11 unanswered goals in two league games after opening their season with a 0-0 draw at Sporting Gijon, but Benitez feels that there is still room for improvement.
"We played well but there are things to be polished," Benitez said. "Espanyol has done many things right, but we have a lot of punch and we took advantage.
"I said this team would be attacking. We attacked, but we try to have balance. At the front I ask you to have freedom of movement to create problems. That was the key. It was not easy and they have done very well."

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